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Chapter1．EnvironmentalStandards,Markets,andthe1

CommonLawTheConceptofEnvironmentalRegulation1

Chapter1．EnvironmentalStandards,Markets,andthe1

EthicsandEfficiency:TheMoralBasisofPollution2

ControlTheEPAandItsAuthoritytoPermitandEnforce3

SettingtheStandardforEmissionstothe5

EnvironmentConventionalPollutants6

ToxicPollutants6

SpeciesandHabitat:7

ToolsandTechniquesofEnvironmentalProtection7

TechnologyForcingStandards7

RegulationofExistingVersusNewEmitters8

TaxesandSubsidies9

FlexibleMarketIncentives10

RiskAssessment12

SummaryofContentsContents13

CommonLawEnvironmentalRemedies15

KeyDistinctions15

Nuisance16

Trespass21

Negligence21

StrictLiability22

PublicTrustDoctrine24

Preface25

TheAvailabilityofCriminalSanctions26

Acknowledgments27

Chapter2．AdministrativeProcedureforEnvironmental31

CommonLawChapter2．AdministrativeProcedureforEnvironmentalRegulation31

RegulationWheretheActionIs31

DrawingtheLine:TheNondelegationDoctrine34

StayingWithintheTent:TheUltraViresDoctrine36

TypesofAgencyActions37

TheAdministrativeProcedureAct37

InformalRulemaking38

Adjudications39

FormalRulemaking39

StayingCurrent40

HybridProcedures40

Reg-Neg41

TheProcessandJudicialReview42

StandingtoSue42

RipenessoftheAction47

ExhaustionofAdministrativeRemedies49

StandardsofJudicialReview51

WhatCanBeAppealedtotheCourts52

TheChoiceofStandard53

RemediesandFees58

FederalTortClaimsAct58

EqualAccesstoJusticeAct59

PublicAccesstoInformation61

FreedomofInformationAct61

FederalAdvisoryCommitteeAct63

TheSunshineAct64

Chapter3．TheNationalEnvironmentalPolicyAct67

TheStructureofNEPA67

Chapter3．TheNationalEnvironmentalPolicyAct67

TheNEPAText68

IntheBeginning:SubstanceandProcedure69

TheEISProcess73

TheAdministrativeProcess73

TheThresholdDecision74

MajorFederalAction76

SignificantlyAffectingtheQualityofthe78

HumanEnvironmentTheHumanEnvironment81

JudicialReviewUnderNEPA83

TimingandScopeoftheEIS92

When:TimingoftheEIS92

Actions:ProgramImpactStatements,95

Who,What,andWhere:ScopeoftheEIS95

Segmentation,andtheSmallHandleProblemAlternativestotheProposedAction98

WhenAgain:TheSupplementalEIS100

ImposeLiability:106and107

AdequacyoftheEIS:AnalysisandAlternatives107

ToAnalyzeorNottoAnalyze?EISUncertainty108

AnalysisofSufficientEnvironmentalImpacts108

Cost-BenefitAnalysis109

andPossibleDelayWorst-CaseRiskAnalysis109

TreatmentofAlternatives110

No-ActionAlternative111

PrimaryAlternatives112

SecondaryAlternatives112

MitigationMeasures112

JudicialReviewofAdequacy:Substancevs.113

StatutoryExemptions114

ProcedureExemptionsfromNEPA114

StatutoryConflicts:TheFlintRidgeCase115

InternationalEnvironmentalEffects116

NationalSecurity116

Chapter4．ConstitutionalIssues:TheCommerceClauseand127

Chapter4．ConstitutionalIssues:TheCommerceClauseand127

RegulateInterstateCommerceDirectFederalRegulation128

EnvironmentalPreemptionTheCommerceClauseandEnvironmentalRegulation128

IssueOne:ThePlenaryPowerofCongressto128

TheTenthAmendmentLimitationonFederal129

DormantCommerceClauseGeographicallyDiscriminatoryLegislation132

PowertoRegulateIssueTwo:RestrictionofStatePower—The132

TheBalancingTestforStateLegislationThatIs136

NotFaciallyDiscriminatorybutMayBurdenInterstateCommerceMarketParticipantAnalysis:WhenaStateDoes139

NotRegulateFederalPreemptionofStateEnvironmentalRegulation144

ExpressPreemption145

ImpliedPreemption145

SavingsClausesinEnvironmentalStatutes149

EnvironmentalPreemptionChapter5．AirQualityRegulation153

SourcesofAirPollution153

TheBasicsofAirPollutionRegulation153

Chapter5．AirQualityRegulation153

AirPollutionRegulationPriorto1970155

AmbientAirQuality:AreaRegulation156

TheCleanAirActAmendmentsof1970156

SourceControls:RegulationofIndividual163

EmittersofPollutantsTheCleanAirActAmendmentsof1977165

TheConceptofNonattainment:Geographic166

StandardsExistingSources:RACT167

NonattainmentAreas:NewSourceReview168

(NSR)AttainmentAreas:PreventionofSignificant170

Deterioration(PSD)SummaryofPermitting172

TheCleanAirActAmendmentsof1990177

AttainmentandMaintenanceofNAAQS:TitleI177

FailuretoAchieveCompliance177

Pollutant-SpecificRequirementsfor179

EmissionControls188

NonattainmentAreasRegulatingMobileSources:TitleⅡ188

FuelPrograms189

VehicleFleetPrograms190

HazardousAirPollutants(NESHAPs):TitleⅢ195

AcidDepositionControl:TitleⅣ199

StratosphericOzoneProtection:TitleⅥ202

EPAEnforcement204

EnforcementProvisions:TitleⅦ204

PrivilegedLegalInformation206

CriminalPenalties206

CitizenSuits206

Chapter6．WaterPollution213

Chapter6．WaterPollution213

TheImportanceofWater213

WaterQualityandPollution215

PrimarySourcesofWaterPollution215

PointSources215

NonpointSources217

TypesandMeasurementsofWaterPollution217

BiologicalHazards218

ChemicalHazards218

EarlyWaterQualityandEffluentRegulation221

TheRiverandHarborsActof1899221

TwentiethCenturyPre-1972WaterPollution222

ControlFederalWaterPollutionControlAct224

TheStructure224

Permits225

Health-BasedStandards228

Health-BasedandTechnology-BasedStandards228

ToxicPollutants228

Technology-BasedStandards229

ExistingIndustrialSources231

AmendmentsRegulatingDischarges231

POTWs234

NewIndustrialSources235

NonpointSources236

FDFVariances238

Water-QualityStandards243

Enforcement245

TheSafeDrinkingWaterAct247

AdditionalFederalWaterPollutionStatutes247

TheCoastalZoneManagementAct248

OtherWaterPollutionStatutes248

TheOilPollutionAct250

TheMarineProtectionAct252

TheFishandWildlifeCoordinationAct253

Chapter7．RightstoUseWater255

Chapter7．RightstoUseWater255

WhatAreRiparianWaterRights?256

RiparianWaterRights:GeographicDetermination256

SurfaceWaterRights256

WaterTypesSubjecttoRiparianRights257

RiparianLand258

TheEvolutionoftheReasonableUseRule260

TheEffectofNon-UseandPrescription261

DevelopmentofPriorAppropriation265

TheSystemofPriorAppropriation:FirstinTime265

ObtainingPriorityRights:Appropriation266

TheTransferorConveyanceofWaterRights268

WaterThatMayBeAppropriated268

AdministrativePermitSystems269

DualSystemStates269

ConstitutionalIssues271

GroundwaterAllocation275

RiparianRights275

PriorAppropriationRights276

FederalandTribalRights277

Chapter8．TheManagementofHazardousandSolidWastes:281

Chapter8．TheManagementofHazardousandSolidWastes:281

RCRAWhatWasteIsRegulated?282

RCRA sPurposeandGoals282

TriggerOne:RCRARegulates Wastes283

CriteriaforIdentifyingRegulatedHazardous285

TriggerTwo:RCRARegulatesHazardousWastes285

WastesHazardousWastesRegulatedUnderOther287

StatutesareExcludedfromRCRARegulationOtherUnregulatedorMinimallyRegulated290

WastesRegulationofHazardousWasteGenerators294

RegulationofHazardousWasteTransporters297

TSDFacilityRegulation299

InterimStatusFacilities300

PermanentPermittedStatusFacilities301

RelationtoOtherRegulation302

TheLandBan304

StateandLocalGovernmentRegulation306

WrestlingtheTiger:EnforcementbyAgenciesand310

CitizensInformationGatheringbytheEPA:3007310

Information310

Inspections311

MonitoringandTesting:3O13312

CitizenSuits:7002313

TheContribution317

ImminentandSubstantialEndangermentActions:317

TheActors318

Remedies319

Scienter320

CriminalViolations320

Penalties322

RCRARemediesandBankruptcyPowers323

UndergroundStorageTanks(UST)324

SubsidiaryRCRARegulatoryPrograms324

MedicalWasteTrackingActof1988326

Conclusion327

RCRAChapter9．TheSuperfund:HazardousSubstanceRemediation331

Chapter9．TheSuperfund:HazardousSubstanceRemediation331

HoWSuperfundIsDifferentfromOther332

TheMechanicsofCERCLA332

WastesandOtherSubstances333

EnvironmentalLawsProspectiveorRetrospective333

PersonsandPlaces335

BasicStructure336

CommonLawDistinctions336

InformationandInspection:103and104337

KeyCERCLADefinitions338

Clean-upAuthority:104and105340

TheSuperfund:111and112344

The1986SARAAmendments345

LiabilityAllocation:107345

TheFourBasicTools354

106OrdersandInjunctiveRemedies354

EPAToolstoAccomplishPollutionAbatementand354

107Litigation355

104FriendlyPersuasion356

StrictLiability357

ProximateCause357

Generators358

OwnersandOperators359

OfficerLiability360

Transporters361

BasicDefenses362

AssignmentandAllocationofLiabilitytoPrivateParties373

JointandSeveral,orSeveral,Liability?374

DivisibilityoftheHarm375

EquitableFactorsasApportionmentTools376

PrivatePRP107Actions:TheKramerRule377

UniformContributionAmongTortfeasorsAct379

PrivatePartyAllocation:113379

(UCATA)UniformComparativeFaultAct(UCFA)380

StatutesofLimitationandReview381

StrategicCERCLALitigationChoicesand381

OutcomesSubstantiveDistinctions381

MunicipalLiability395

SituationsLiabilityStatusofUnconventional Persons395

TheApplicationofCERCLALiabilityinSpecial395

LiabilityofTrustees,Fiduciaries,andLenders396

LiabilityofParentCorporationforActsofthe399

SubsidiarySuccessorCorporationLiability401

LiabilityofPersonsDuringTimesofWar402

ClausesInterplaywithBankruptcyLaw406

EffectofIndemnitiesand HoldHarmless406

InterrelationshipofCERCLAandOtherLaw406

ThePetroleumExclusion407

NaturalResourceDamagesandEconomicLoss408

LiensAgainstPRPProperty409

InterlocutoryChallenge:The TakeItor410

LeaveIt PropositionCriminalandCivilPenalties412

InsuranceCompensationforContamination:Who415

UltimatelyPays?TheDutytoDefend416

TheRequirementofan Occurrence Within417

thePolicyPeriodThe Trigger ofCoverage417

ThePollutionExclusionClauseandIts418

Interpretation: SuddenandAccidental PollutingEventsTheAbsolutePollutionExclusion419

EquitableReliefvs.Damages:AreClean-up420

LandUse,PropertyRights,andEnvironmentalLaw423

CostsCoveredUndertheCGLPolicy?Chapter10．LocalEnvironmentalControl423

Chapter10．LocalEnvironmentalControl423

HistoryandEvolutionofZoningTechniques424

ZoningandtheEnvironment424

ZoningandCriticalEnvironmentalHabitats424

LegalProblemswithZoning429

ClusterZoning430

EuclideanZoning430

EnvironmentalZoningTechniques430

TransferableDevelopmentRights(TDRs)432

PlannedUnitDevelopment(PUD)432

EnvironmentalOverlayDistricts433

OpenSpaceZoning433

RestrictionsonGrowth434

Exactions435

ConservationEasements,LandAcquisition,and435

TaxationPerformanceStandards436

RegulationofCriticalEnvironmentalResources438

TheCoastalZone438

Wetlands441

OtherCriticalAreas441

MunicipalLicensingforEnvironmentalGoals444

TheMunicipalPowertoLicense444

BuildingandOccupancyPermits445

NonconformingUsesandTheirDestruction446

BoardofHealthEnvironmentalAuthority448

CommonLawLandUseControls449

ThePublicTrustDoctrine449

WasteandNuisance451

LegalLimitationsonEnvironmentalLandUse452

RegulationThe Takings ClauseLimitation452

ProceduralLimitations455

Chapter11．PreservationofNaturalAreas:WetlandsandOpenSpace459

Chapter11．PreservationofNaturalAreas:WetlandsandOpen459

SpaceWetlandsandWaterways459

WhatIsaWetland?460

RegulationofWetlands463

TheNationalEnvironmentalPolicyAct(NEPA)463

TheRiverandHarborsActof1899463

EarlyRegulation463

TheWildandScenicRiversAct464

TheFederalWaterPollutionControlAct464

Exemptions465

TheExtentofJurisdictionUndertheClean466

TheArmyCorpsofEngineers470

WaterActJurisdictionalOverlapsinImplementing404470

EPAVeto472

AdministrativeReview473

ReviewofEPAorCorps Decisions473

RegulatoryTakings474

CitizenSuitsUnder505474

TheRoleoftheStatesinWetlandsProtection477

StateWetlandsProtectionJurisdiction478

StateControlofthe404Program478

TheAgenciesinControl481

ProtectedNaturalResourceAreas481

WildernessAreas484

ForestService485

MineralExploitation486

Grazing487

Chapter12．EnergyandPower:TheUltimateResource489

Chapter12．EnergyandPower:TheUltimateResource489

TheRoleofElectricity490

ElectricPowerandtheEnvironment490

ElectricityasaSpecialResource491

TheHistoryofPower491

HighEnergy491

EnergyEfficiency496

PollutionfromPowerPlants497

WhereDoesItComeFrom—WhereDoesItGo?503

RegulationofPublicUtilities503

HoWUtilityRatesAreSet505

Federalvs.StateRegulation509

TheFiledRateDoctrine510

DeregulationofPowerGeneration513

DeregulationofPower513

PowerBidding517

DeregulationofPowerandWheeling517

RetailSalesandWheeling518

OilandGasintheAmericanEconomy523

OilandGasRights523

EnvironmentalRepercussions524

OwnershipandTransferofOilandGasRights525

Chapter13．TheEndangeredSpeciesAct531

KeyConcepts531

Chapter13．TheEndangeredSpeciesAct531

TheKeyNounsandAdjectives533

TheKeyVerb: Take534

ListingSpeciesandHabitat:4535

ListingofSpeciesandConsultation535

RequiredCooperationandConsultationforListed537

Exemptionfrom7538

WhatPrivateActionIsProhibited542

Takings:9542

IncidentalTakesAllowed543

Chapter14．TSCAandFIFRA:RegulatingChemical547

Chapter14．TSCAandFIFRA:RegulatingChemicalManufacture547

ManufactureandDistributionTheToxicSubstancesControlAct548

PartiesRegulated549

WhatIsaChemicalSubstance?549

TestingChemicalSubstances550

ExistingSubstancesThatPresentan551

RegulatingExistingChemicalSubstances551

UnreasonableRiskofInjury ImminentlyHazardous ExistingSubstances552

RegulatingNewChemicalSubstances553

SignificantNewUses ofExistingSubstances553

Enforcement555

TheFederalInsecticide,Fungicide,andRodenticideAct557

Registration558

(FIFRA)PesticidesDefined558

ExportofPesticides560

Preemption561

Chapter15．InternationalEnvironmentalLaw565

andDistributionChapter15．InternationalEnvironmentalLaw565

TheStructureandLimitationsofInternational566

EnvironmentalLawTreaties567

Custom569

JudicialDecisionsandScholarlyWriting570

GeneralPrinciplesofLaw570

InternationalForumsforJustice572

EquityinInternationalJustice573

TheApplicationofInternationalEnvironmentalLaw574

Trans-BoundaryHarm575

JudicialDecisions575

AirPollution575

WaterPollufion576

NuclearPowerandWeapons577

Desertification577

SpeciesandToxins578

Glossary581

Glossary581

Abbreviations597

Abbreviations597

TableofCases603

TableofCases603

Index609

Index609

Amendmentsof1972